Emperor Basil I the Macedonian
Basil I (known as the Macedonian, 811 - 886), Byzantine emperor, was born to a family of Armenian (not Slavonic) descent, settled in Macedonia.
He spent a part of his childhood in captivity in Bulgaria, where his family had lived as captives of the Bulgarian prince Krum since 813. He succeeded in escaping and was ultimately lucky enough to enter the service of Theophilitzes, a relative of the Caesar Bardas (uncle of Michael III 'the Drunkard'), as groom. While serving Theophilitzes he visited the city of Patrae, where he gained the favour of Danielis, a wealthy woman who took him into her household and endowed him with a fortune. He also earned the notice of Michael III by winning a victory in a wrestling match, and soon became the emperor's companion and bodyguard (parakoimomenos).
To gain favour with Michael, he divorced his wife and married Eudocia Ingerina, one of Michael's mistresses. It was commonly believed that Leo VI, Basil's successor and reputed son, was really the son of Michael. Basil then murdered Bardas, who virtually ruled the empire in Michael's place; this was done with the emperor's consent in April, 866, and a few weeks later Basil was named Caesar. Up to this point, it is unlikely that anyone imagined Basil would be capable of administering the empire alone, as he shared in the debauches of his friend Michael. In September, 867, he had Michael assassinated, and reigned alone.
He inaugurated a new age in the history of the empire, associated with the dynasty which he founded. This is usually called the Macedonian Dynasty, although it would be more accurate to call it the Armenian dynasty. It was a period of territorial expansion, during which the empire was the strongest power in Europe.
Because of the great legislative work which Basil undertook, and which may be described as a revival of the laws of Justinian I, he is often called the "second Justinian." Basil's laws were collected in the Basilica, consisting of sixty books, and smaller legal manuals known as the Prochiron and the Eisagoge. Leo VI was responsible for completing these legal works. Basil's financial administration was prudent.
His ecclesiastical policy was marked by good relations with Rome. One of his first acts was to exile the patriarch Photius and restore his rival Ignatius, whose claims were supported by Pope Adrian II. However, Basil had no intention of yielding to Rome beyond a certain point. The decision of the Bulgarian tsar Michael to submit the new Bulgarian Church to the jurisdiction of Constantinople was a great blow to Rome, who had hoped to secure it for herself. In 877 Photius became patriarch again, and there was a virtual, though not a formal, breach with Rome. This was a watershed event in conflicts that led to the Great Schism that ultimately produced Roman Catholicism and the Orthodox Church as separate entities.
His reign was marked by a troublesome war with the Paulician heretics, an inheritance from his predecessor; the death of their chief Chrysochir led to the definite subjection of their state, centred on Tephrice on the Euphrates and aided by the Saracens. There was the usual frontier warfare with the Saracens in Asia Minor. Cyprus was recovered, but retained for only seven years. Syracuse was lost, but Bari and much of Calabria was recovered. The successes in Italy opened a new period of Byzantine domination there. Above all, the Byzantines were once again in control of the Mediterranean Sea, and especially the Adriatic.
Basil reigned nineteen years. His death on August 29, 886 was due to a fever contracted after a serious hunting accident, when his belt was caught in the antlers of a deer and he was dragged from his horse. He was saved by an attendant who cut him loose with a knife, but he suspected the attendant of trying to assassinate him and had the man executed shortly before he himself died.
Emperor Basil I the Macedonian
Basil I (known as the Macedonian, 811 - 886), Byzantine emperor, was born to a family of Armenian (not Slavonic) descent, settled in Macedonia.
He spent a part of his childhood in captivity in Bulgaria, where his family had lived as captives of the Bulgarian prince Krum since 813. He succeeded in escaping and was ultimately lucky enough to enter the service of Theophilitzes, a relative of the Caesar Bardas (uncle of Michael III 'the Drunkard'), as groom. While serving Theophilitzes he visited the city of Patrae, where he gained the favour of Danielis, a wealthy woman who took him into her household and endowed him with a fortune. He also earned the notice of Michael III by winning a victory in a wrestling match, and soon became the emperor's companion and bodyguard (parakoimomenos).
To gain favour with Michael, he divorced his wife and married Eudocia Ingerina, one of Michael's mistresses. It was commonly believed that Leo VI, Basil's successor and reputed son, was really the son of Michael. Basil then murdered Bardas, who virtually ruled the empire in Michael's place; this was done with the emperor's consent in April, 866, and a few weeks later Basil was named Caesar. Up to this point, it is unlikely that anyone imagined Basil would be capable of administering the empire alone, as he shared in the debauches of his friend Michael. In September, 867, he had Michael assassinated, and reigned alone.
He inaugurated a new age in the history of the empire, associated with the dynasty which he founded. This is usually called the Macedonian Dynasty, although it would be more accurate to call it the Armenian dynasty. It was a period of territorial expansion, during which the empire was the strongest power in Europe.
Because of the great legislative work which Basil undertook, and which may be described as a revival of the laws of Justinian I, he is often called the "second Justinian." Basil's laws were collected in the Basilica, consisting of sixty books, and smaller legal manuals known as the Prochiron and the Eisagoge. Leo VI was responsible for completing these legal works. Basil's financial administration was prudent.
His ecclesiastical policy was marked by good relations with Rome. One of his first acts was to exile the patriarch Photius and restore his rival Ignatius, whose claims were supported by Pope Adrian II. However, Basil had no intention of yielding to Rome beyond a certain point. The decision of the Bulgarian tsar Michael to submit the new Bulgarian Church to the jurisdiction of Constantinople was a great blow to Rome, who had hoped to secure it for herself. In 877 Photius became patriarch again, and there was a virtual, though not a formal, breach with Rome. This was a watershed event in conflicts that led to the Great Schism that ultimately produced Roman Catholicism and the Orthodox Church as separate entities.
His reign was marked by a troublesome war with the Paulician heretics, an inheritance from his predecessor; the death of their chief Chrysochir led to the definite subjection of their state, centred on Tephrice on the Euphrates and aided by the Saracens. There was the usual frontier warfare with the Saracens in Asia Minor. Cyprus was recovered, but retained for only seven years. Syracuse was lost, but Bari and much of Calabria was recovered. The successes in Italy opened a new period of Byzantine domination there. Above all, the Byzantines were once again in control of the Mediterranean Sea, and especially the Adriatic.
Basil reigned nineteen years. His death on August 29, 886 was due to a fever contracted after a serious hunting accident, when his belt was caught in the antlers of a deer and he was dragged from his horse. He was saved by an attendant who cut him loose with a knife, but he suspected the attendant of trying to assassinate him and had the man executed shortly before he himself died.
Emperor Michael III the Drunkard PHRYGIAN
Michael III (839-867), "the Drunkard," was grandson of Michael II, and succeeded his father Theophilus as Byzantine emperor when he was three years old in 842.
During his minority the empire was governed by his mother Theodora, who in spite of several defeats inflicted upon her generals maintained the frontiers against the Saracens of Baghdad and Crete. The regent displayed her religious zeal by restoring veneration of icons (842) and persecuting the Paulician heretics, but she entirely neglected the education of her son. As a result Michael grew up a debauchee, and fell under the sway of his uncle Bardas, who induced him to banish Theodora to a convent and practically assumed the chief control (857).
Bardas justified this usurpation by introducing various internal reforms; in the wars of the period Michael himself took a more active part. During a conflict with the Saracens of the Euphrates (856-863), the emperor sustained a personal defeat (860), which was retrieved by a great victory on the part of his uncle Petronas in Asia Minor. In 861 Michael and Bardas invaded Bulgaria and secured the conversion of the king to Christianity.
On the sea the empire suffered under the ravages of the Cretan corsairs; and in 865 the first pillaging expedition of the Russians endangered the Bosporus. In 867 Michael was assassinated by Basil the Macedonian, a former groom, who had overthrown the influence of Bardas and in 866 been associated in the Empire.
Theophilus (813 - 842) was Byzantine emperor from 829 to 842. He was the second of the "Phrygian" dynasty.
Unlike his father Michael II, he declared himself a pronounced iconoclast. In 832 he issued an edict strictly forbidding the use of icons; but the stories of his cruel treatment of recalcitrants are so extreme that some think they are exaggerated.
At the time of his accession, the Sicilians were still engaged in hostilities with the Saracens, but Theophilus was obliged to devote all his energies to the war against the caliphs of Baghdad. This war was caused by Theophilus, who afforded an asylum to a number of Persian refugees, one of whom, called Theophobus after his conversion to Christianity, married the emperor's sister Helena, and became one of his generals.
The Byzantine army was at first successful; in 837 Samosata and Zapetra (Zibatra, Sozopetra), the birthplace of Caliph al-Mu'tasim, were taken and destroyed. Eager for revenge, al-Mu'tasim assembled a vast army, one division of which defeated Theophilus, who commanded in person, at Dasymon, while the other advanced against Amorium, the cradle of the Phrygian dynasty. After a brave resistance of fifty-five days, the city fell into al-Mu'tasim's hands through treachery on September 23, 838. Thirty thousand of the inhabitants were slain, the rest sold as slaves, and the city razed to the ground.
Theophilus never recovered from the blow; his health gradually failed, and he died at the beginning of 842. His character has been the subject of considerable discussion, some regarding him as one of the ablest of the Byzantine emperors, others as an ordinary oriental despot, an overrated and insignificant ruler. There is no doubt that he did his best to check corruption and oppression on the part of his officials, and administered justice with strict impartiality, although his punishments did not always fit the crime.
In spite of the drain of the war in Asia and the large sums spent by Theophilus on building, commerce, industry, and the finances of the empire were in a most flourishing condition, the credit of which was in great measure due to the highly efficient administration of the department. Theophilus, who had received an excellent education from John Hylilas, the grammarian, was a great admirer of music and a lover of art, although his taste was not of the highest. He strengthened the walls of Constantinople, and built a hospital, which continued in existence till the latest times of the Byzantine Empire.
Emperor Michael II the Stammerer PHRYGIAN
Michael II, called Psellus, "the stammerer," or "the Amorian" (770-829) reigned as Byzantine emperor 820 - 829. Born in Amorium in Phrygia, he began his career as a private soldier, but rose by his talents to the rank of general.
He had favoured the enthronement of his old companion in arms Leo the Armenian (813), but, detected in a conspiracy against that emperor, had been sentenced to death in December 820; his partisans, however, succeeded in assassinating Leo and called Michael from the prison to the throne as the first representative of the Amorian dynasty.
Several features marked his reign: a struggle against his brother general, Thomas, who aimed at the throne (822-824); the conquest of Crete by the Saracens in 823; and the beginning of their attacks upon Sicily (827).
In spite of his iconoclastic sympathies, he endeavoured to conciliate the image-worshippers, but incurred the wrath of the monks by entering into a second marriage with Euphrosyne, daughter of Constantine VI, who had previously taken the veil.
Emperor Constantine VI ISAURIAN the Blinded
Constantine VI (771 - 797) succeeded his father Leo IV as Byzantine emperor at the age of nine in 780, and was emperor under the regency of his iconophile mother Irene. In 787 Irene made an alliance with Charlemagne and planned to have Constantine marry his daughter Rotrud, but this plan did not work out. She later had Constantine marry the daughter of a minor noble.
Constantine was 16 years old in 787, and general opinion was that Irene should have relinquished control of the empire to him. He finally came to power in 790 when the Armenians in the army rebelled against Irene, although she was allowed to keep the title of Empress. Constantine had to defeat the Armenians in battle before they would accept her as Empress; this was his first victory after disastrous defeats at the hands of the Bulgars.
He also had put down a rebellion by his brother Nicephorus, who had been sent to a monastery to make him ineligible to rule. He then divorced his wife and remarried, an unpopular and possibly illegal act, although the Patriarch ignored it. In 797 there was yet another rebellion, led by allies of Irene with her approval. Constantine was captured and blinded, later dying from his wounds, leaving Irene in sole control of the empire. Pretenders to the throne claiming to be Constantine VI later appeared during the reign of Michael II.
Emperor Leo IV the Khazar ISAURIAN
Leo IV, called Chozar or the Khazar (c. 750 - 780), succeeded his father, Constantine V, as emperor of the Byzantine Empire in 775. In 776 he associated his young son, Constantine, with himself in the empire, and suppressed an uprising led by his five step-brothers which broke out as a result of this proceeding.
Like his father and grandfather, Leo was successful in battle against the Arabs and Bulgars. Unlike his father and grandfather, however, Leo favoured the iconophiles, and restored an iconophile patriarch.
During his reign Leo was largely under the influence of his wife Irene, and when he died suddenly in 780 she was left as the guardian of his son and successor, Constantine VI.
Saint Irene (c. 752 - August 9, 803) was a Byzantine empress (although she called herself basileus, the male form of the word "emperor," rather than basilissa, "empress") from 797 to 802. She was the wife of Leo IV.
Originally a poor but beautiful Athenian orphan, she speedily gained the love and confidence of her feeble husband, and at his death in 780 was left by him sole guardian of the empire and of their ten-year-old son Constantine VI.
Seizing the supreme power in the name of the latter, Irene ruled the empire at her own discretion for ten years, displaying great firmness and sagacity in her government.
Her most notable act was the restoration of the orthodox veneration of icons or images, a policy which she always had secretly favoured, though compelled to abjure it in her husband's lifetime. Having elected Tarasius, one of her partisans, to the patriarchate in 784, she summoned two church councils. The former of these, held in 786 at Constantinople, was frustrated by the opposition of the soldiers. The second, convened at Nicaea in 787, formally revived the adoration of images and reunited the Eastern church with that of Rome. (See Seventh Ecumenical Council.)
As Constantine approached maturity he began to grow restive under her autocratic sway. An attempt to free himself by force was met and crushed by the empress, who demanded that the oath of fidelity should thenceforward be taken in her name alone. The discontent which this occasioned swelled in 790 into open resistance, and the soldiers, headed by the Armenian guard, formally proclaimed Constantine VI as the sole ruler.
A hollow semblance of friendship was maintained between Constantine and Irene, whose title of empress was confirmed in 792; but the rival factions remained, and Irene, by skillful intrigues with the bishops and courtiers, organized a powerful conspiracy on her own behalf. Constantine could only flee for aid to the provinces, but even there he was surrounded by participants in the plot. Seized by his attendants on the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus, the emperor was carried back to the palace at Constantinople; and there, by the orders of his mother, his eyes were stabbed out. An eclipse of the sun and a darkness of seventeen days' duration were attributed by the common superstition to the horror of heaven.
Irene reigned in prosperity and splendour for five years. She is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne; but according to Theophanes, who alone mentions it, the scheme was frustrated by Aëtius, one of her favourites. A projected alliance between Constantine and Charlemagne's daughter, Rothrude, was in turn broken off by Irene. In 802 the patricians, upon whom she had lavished every honour and favour, conspired against her, and placed on the throne Nicephorus, the minister of finance. The haughty and unscrupulous princess, "who never lost sight of political power in the height of her religious zeal," was exiled to Lesbos and forced to support herself by spinning. She died the following year. Her zeal in restoring images and monasteries has given her a place among the saints of the Eastern Orthodox church.
Emperor Constantine V Copronymus ISAURIAN
Constantine V Copronymus ("The Dung-named") was Byzantine emperor from 741-775. He was supposedly given his nickname when he defecated in his baptismal font in 718.
He was opposed by his father's chamberlain Artabasdus, who attacked Constantine's army while they were on campaign against the Arabs in Anatolia. Artabasdus declared that Constantine had been killed in battle and seized power in Constantinople. Constantine, however, fled to Isauria, rallied his surporters, and besieged the capital in 742. By the end of 743 he had retaken the city and had Artabasdus blinded.
After this he reorganized the themes, the military districts of the empire, and created new divisions called tagmata. He organized these so that they would be more difficult to use in conspiracies. With this reorganized army he recaptured land from the Arabs in 751, who were involved in a civil war of their own. He also defeated the Bulgars at Anchialus in 763.
Constantine continued the iconoclasm of his father Leo III, actively persecuting iconophiles and monasteries. In 753 he called a council of iconoclast bishops and clergy, one of the smallest councils ever, to proclaim the veneration of icons a heresy. This was very unpopular among the general population. In 766 he persecuted iconophile monks and nuns by forcing them to hold hands together in the Hippodrome, and had a mob lynch an iconophile hermit named Stephen. He also proclaimed that relics and prayers to the saints were heretical.
While on campaign against the Bulgars, Constantine died on September 14, 775. Iconophiles considered this a divine punishment. They spread the rumour of his baptism and began to use the "Copronymus" nickname. In the 9th century he was disinterred and thrown into the sea.