This certainly is not -- nor is it intended to be -- a scholarly work. Rather, it's a lay-person effort intended merely to set out broadly those socio-politico-economic factors which,together with geography, were the major elements in establishing the principal migration routes and periods within and through Colonial Virginia. It's intended primarily for those who -- like me -- did not grow up in Virginia and for those who -- like me -- only found a need to have a working knowledge of Colonial Virginia upon discovering that one (or more) of their ancestors _was_ a Colonial Virginian.
At least two words in that "preamble" need emphasis: broadly and principal. Hundreds of books, thousands of theses, and countless articles have been written detailing each of the elements which drove the settlement of Virginia; this will only touch upon the highlights. By being broad, it no doubt will omit many elements which some/all of you deem significant; I'll stipulate to that in advance. Moreover, it will only address the _principal_ routes/ movements of settlement. Each of you, I'm certain, could point to one or more of your ancestors who moved into or through Virginia by one of many other routes; I hope you will do so. In short, this will be filled with omissions, by design; I'll simply try to avoid the "sins of commission."
You will need a reasonably good map of Virginia -- one that at least shows the current counties and major rivers; virtually any common road map or atlas will suffice. If you're _really_ serious,you might want to spring for a copy of the "Virginia Atlas and Gazeteer" by DeLorme Mapping Co., on sale (ca. $17) at better bookstores.
A brief, Virginia-unique, glossary: "The Peninsula"; "The Middle Neck"; "The Northern Neck": Glance at a VA map and you'll notice three distinct peninsulas from the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, northward. The southernmost -- lying between the James and York Rivers and as far up as Charles City and New Kent Cos. -- is known to Virginians simply as "The Peninsula," just as UVA is known simply as "The University." The other two are never referred to as peninsulas, but as "necks" -- as in a "neck of land." The Middle Neck lies between the York/Pamunkey and Rappahannock Rivers -- as far up as the eastern boundaries of Caroline and Spotsylvania Cos.; and the Northern Neck lies between the Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers as far up as the lower boundary of Stafford Co.
"Tidewater": As the name implies, this is the portion of rivers -- and adjacent land --which is affected by tides; in other words, all territory up to the fall line. Many Virginians speak of such areas north of the James River as "Upper Tidewater" and those south of the James as "Lower Tidewater."
"Southside": This area is a bit more nebulous and may well depend on who's using the term. Historically, it was used to describe essentially that area bounded on the south by North Carolina; on the west by the Blue Ridge; on the east by Dinwiddie and Brunswick Cos.; and on the north by the Nottoway River extended to the upper Appomattox River. Many in Nottoway Co. and even Amelia Co., however, think of themselves as "Southsiders."
"The Valley": the Shenandoah Valley [see "The Peninsula" and "The University"]. "Eastern Shore": that part of Virginia on the eastern side of the Chesapeake Bay --consisting of Accomac and Northampton Cos. -- and comprising the VA portion of the Delmarva Peninsula.
"Upper" and "Lower" anything: From the earliest days, Virginians used these terms in a directional sense to mean "upstream" and "downstream," and by and large the terms have held on to modern times. Do not confuse them with compass directions. For example: the "upper Valley" is southernmost, and the "lower Valley" is northernmost; this is because the Shenandoah River flows south to north.
1607-1642
As is generally well-known, the settlement at Jamestown _was_ Virginia for the first few years. In 1611 a small settlement was made as far up the north bank of the James River as opposite the mouth of the Appomattox River. In succeeding years, small enclaves were established on the south side of the lower James River, on the northern end of The Peninsula at the mouth of the York River (then known as Charles River), and across the Chesapeake Bay on the Eastern Shore. By 1634, the population of the colony was slightly less than 5,000, almost all of whom -- except those on the Eastern Shore -- still lived within about a 30-mile radius of Jamestown. In 1634, the colony was divided into eight "shires," or counties, to facilitate administration. These were:
HENRICO }
CHARLES CITY }
JAMES CITY } all on The Peninsula
ELIZABETH CITY }
WARWICK RIVER }
CHARLES RIVER }
WARROSQUOAKE on the south side of the mouth of the James River
ACCOMACK on the Eastern Shore
From a sociological standpoint it's well to note that with a very few exceptions the colonists to this point were exclusively English and middle-class (yeomen, artisans, craftsmen, soldiers),with a significant number of them in some form of indentured servitude. The colony was still a little too rustic and dangerous to attract English "gentry." A word or two of explanation about indentures may be in order, here. It's been said that perhaps no more than 10% of colonists paid their own way to come to VA, with the remainder arriving indebted to someone for their passage. Consequently, they could be termed "indentured persons," in the sense that they were obligated to repay their passage. The types of indentures varied widely: For some, it meant indentured servitude, working directly in the service of another for an agreed-upon period of time -- usually 5-7 years -- with the "employer" providing food, clothing and shelter; these folks often were called "servants" but more accurately were laborers of various types. For others, it was simply a monetary debt that they were obligated to repay, with interest, within an agreed time -- essentially a short-term loan. In a few cases, it was some combination of the two.
The ink was hardly dry on establishing and naming the original "shires" before changes began to occur. In 1636, the name WARROSQUOAKE was changed (thankfully!) to NEW NORFOLK; the following year (1637), it too ceased to exist and its territory was divided into:
LOWER NORFOLK -- nearest the mouth of James River
UPPER NORFOLK -- farther inland and southward
ISLE OF WIGHT -- a little farther westward on the south bank of the James. About this same time, an enclave had been established on the end of the Northern Neck. That became the shire of CHICKACOAN.
In 1642 came another series of wholesale name changes, beginning with dropping "shires" in favor of counties; also:
UPPER NORFOLK was renamed NANSEMOND
ACCOMACK was renamed NORTHAMPTON
WARWICK RIVER was renamed simply WARWICK
CHARLES RIVER was renamed YORK
The same year brought the first of several truly influential Royal Governors: Sir William Berkeley.
1642-1676
The first two years of Governor Berekely's tenure witnessed two major Indian raids. Although these produced considerable casualties among the colonists, Berkeley subdued both, and the ensuing treaty set the stage for a major period of expansion. Until this time, the colonists had not penetrated very far westward, not even to the "fall line" -- or head of navigation -- on the principal rivers. This is a line running from the present cities of Fredericksburg (on theRappahannock) to Richmond (on the James) to Petersburg (on the Appomattox). On the Rappahannock, in fact, settlement was still well below the fall line; and farther north, on the Potomac -- where the falls are just above present-day Washington, DC -- settlement had only extended about mid-way up the river. In the south, settlement had extended along the coast, but very little inland from the south bank of the James. Overall, this situation was as much a factor of transportation as anything. In those days, virtually everything -- goods and folks -- moved by water; hence it was thought not only impractical but also not very smart to move above the fall line while decent land was available below. It was beginning to get a little crowded, though, so incoming settlers -- and land speculators -- therefore turned their attention northward.
Of 9 new counties formed in the period 1642-1676, 7 were north of the James River -- i.e, in Upper Tidewater:
GLOUCESTER was formed from YORK in 1651. LANCASTER was formed from YORK and NORTHUMBERLAND in 1651 -- the latter being the new name of CHICKACOAN as of 1648. WESTMORELAND was formed from NORTHUMBERLAND in 1653. NEW KENT was formed from YORK in 1654. RAPPAHANNOCK was formed from YORK and LANCASTER in 1656. [N.B. This is NOT the same as present-day Rappahannock Co. -- see later.] STAFFORD was formed from WESTMORELAND in 1664. MIDDLESEX was formed from LANCASTER in 1673. The other two new counties in this period were: ACCOMACK -- re-established from a portion of NORTHAMPTON SURRY -- formed in 1652 from that portion of JAMES CITY CO. on the south side of James River.
The establishment of Surry was as much a political move as a major inland incursion on the south side of James River. Although growth in population on the south bank had patented more than 10 miles inland from the river.
It also was about this time that exploration up to and beyond the fall line began in earnest --in some cases well beyond the fall line. For example, in 1654 a man named Abraham Wood explored as far as the New River in southwest Virginia. This exploration marked the beginning of trade with distant Indian tribes and fostered early interest in southwest Virginia and western Carolina.
This also was the period which saw the beginnings of English "gentry" immigration, owing in no small measure to the outbreak of the English Civil War. For example: the first of the Carters, Lees, and Randolphs came in the 1640s, followed soon after by the first William Byrd and the first of the Harrisons, Pages, Wormeleys, Burwells, Masons, Beverleys, Carys, Nelsons, Digges, etc. -- almost all of whom were Royalist sympathizers, or Cavaliers, and families which would have a major impact on the socio-political life of Colonial Virginia. They, of course, did not start the "patent" system of land acquisition, but they had the wherewithal to turn it into a profitable business enterprise. Each colonist who paid for a passage to VA was entitled to 50 acres of land for each passage paid. If someone else paid your passage, he who paid gained the right to the land. These well-to-do but johnny-come- latelys would pay for entire shiploads of folks and thereby acquire "headrights" to property. These headrights in fact, having intrinsic value, became a medium of currency and were traded like commodities and used to settle debts.
Other than the influx of Cavaliers, the English Civil War had little practical effect on Virginia. When King Charles was beheaded in 1649, Oliver Cromwell -- leader of the Parliamentary forces -- sent a delegation to Virginia and a "modus vivendi" was arranged. Berkeley stepped down, but remained in the colony; he was succeeded, in turn, by three "roundhead" governors selected by Parliament from among the colonists of that persuasion. Otherwise, it was pretty much business as usual. With the Restoration in 1660, however, two things happened which had major consequences for Virginia:
-- While in exile, the future King Charles II had incurred considerable debts. In one case, he paid off a debt to a group headed by Lord Fairfax by granting them all lands between the Rapphannock and Potomac Rivers -- never mind that a considerable amount of that land already had been settled and patented to hundreds of others. Suddenly, those who thought they had acquired the land found that they were only renters. This, together with later uncertainties concerning ownership/title, significantly slowed settlement in far-northern Virginia, and some who already had settled there moved southward to areas below the Rappahannock as a consequence.
-- The other matters were economic. To rebuild the English economy and thereby its strength, the King and Parliament decided that all goods entering and leaving Virginia had to be transported on English ships; moreover, Virginia goods could only be sold in England or to English merchants. This monopolistic practice -- coupled with some excellent harvests and overproduction of tobacco -- led to significantly lower prices. As tobacco was the standard medium of exchange, this was the equivalent of a currency devaluation for Virginians. Not altogether coincidentally, it was at about this time that Virginia legalized slavery. It became apparent that profit from tobacco could only be achieved through economy of scale; i.e., large plantations could be profitable, but smaller farms could not. [It's essentially what has become of American farming in the last half of this century.] This -- coupled with some other policies by the Crown -- together with a renewal of Indian depredations, set the stage both for the explosive growth of slavery and for the "First American Revolution," also known as Bacon's Rebellion, in 1676.
* * * * * 1676-1690
Any good encyclopedia provides sufficient coverage of Bacon's Rebellion. Albeit short-lived, suffice it here to say that the instability it created, together with the economic downturn, helped to bring about a 15-year period of virtual stagnation in the colony, in terms of expansion. Immigration nose-dived, in some measure due both to uncertainties concerning Royal succession in England and the fact that in 1673 King Charles -- to pay off some other debts -- had simply given the colony to two cronies: Thomas Lord Culpeper and Henry Bennett, Earl of Arlington; all but the Northern Neck, of course, which he'd already given to Lord Fairfax. By 1681, Culpeper had bought out Arlington's share and then later traded his rights to the colony back to the Crown in return for a 21-year annuity derived from Virginia taxes. So, Virginia resumed being a Royal colony, but the damage had been done vis-a-vis immigration. No new counties were created in this period, and it was a time of consolidation and retrenchment within existing boundaries.
* * * * * 1690-1705
Sparked in part by the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England -- the coming of King William and Queen Mary -- the colony began to rebound in the late 1680s; the price of tobacco began to rise and immigration again picked up. In this period, six new counties were formed:
LOWER NORFOLK ceased to exist in 1691, with a portion cut off to form PRINCESS ANNE and the remainder becoming simply NORFOLK.
KING & QUEEN was formed from NEW KENT in 1691, drawing largely from Gloucester and elsewhere in the Middle Neck.
ESSEX and RICHMOND were formed in 1692 -- on either side of the Rappahannock River -- replacing RAPPAHANNOCK. Like their predecessor county, Essex and Richmond drew heavily from the lower counties on both sides of the river. [N.B. In 1833 the name Rappahannock was resurrected and given to a county well to the west; the two have no connection whatever.]
KING WILLIAM was formed in 1702 from KING & QUEEN and drew principally from New Kent and York. Note that of these the bulk was once again in Upper Tidewater.
The only new county south ofthe James River in this period was PRINCE GEORGE -- formed in 1703 from that part of CHARLES CITY CO. lying south of the James River. It's well to notice that the adjacent area to the south of Prince George, Surry, had achieved separate county status fully 50 years earlier. This is a testament to the fact that the overwhelming growth in that time had been well to the north. Part of the problem south of the James was a treaty between the Crown and the Indians which -- from the standpoint of settlement had long established the Blackwater River/Swamp as the "de facto" southern boundary of the whole colony. At the time of its founding, Prince George encompassed all of Virginia south of the Appomattox River and west of what is now the western boundary of Surry and Sussex Cos. The colonists perceived the establishment of Prince George as a harbinger that the Blackwater boundary restriction was about to be lifted. Yet, despite agitation by the colonists -- some of whom went ahead and had tracts surveyed and submitted applications for patents below the Blackwater -- the Crown technically upheld the treaty until about 1710.
A significant event in this period was the arrival -- by invitation of King William -- of a large contingent of French Protestants (Huguenots) in 1700-1701. They were given a large tract along the James River, just above the falls in western Henrico Co. Other Huguenots came on their own and settled elsewhere in Upper Tidewater, principally along the York River in Gloucester, King & Queen, King William and New Kent. The total number to come initially has been estimated to have been about 1,000. Although almost a century had elapsed since the colony's founding, this event marked the first significant influx of folks who were non-English. Another event in this period was the recording of Quit-Rents paid on properties in 1704. [Actually, a similar event occurred at other times, but the significance of the 1704 Quit-Rent Roll is that it alone has survived.] It constituted the nearest thing to a "census" since the earliest days of the colony -- although it of course named only those holding property. The Roll for each county then in existence is available -- less those counties in the Northern Neck, of course, since their rents were paid to Lord Fairfax rather than the Crown.
* * * * * 1705-1722
This 17-year period presents a mixed-picture of events in Virginia. It was dominated by the presence, as Governor, of Alexander Spotswood from 1710 to 1722. On the one hand, Spotswood was as aristocratic as any of his predecessors and made no secret of the fact that he had little/no use for the ordinary citizens -- the "vulgar people" or "meaner sort," as he termed them. Some say that his views in that regard were a major factor resulting in the establishment of _NO_ new counties until the last year of his tenure; no new counties meant no growth in the size of the legislature, which was fine with Gov. Spotswood. Conversely, he was a career military officer, much in favor of exploration and expansion -- if for no reason other than to extend the defensive perimeter of the colony, with an eye toward both the Indians and the French. Initially, though, he spent much of his time and effort in developing Williamsburg -- and its trappings -- which not too many years earlier had become the Capital of Virginia.
Spotswood was instrumental in removing the Blackwater River as a barrier to southward expansion below the James River, creating a boom in patents and other land transactions in the period 1710-22. Most of those involved already were living in Surry and Prince George Cos., but a goodly number also came southward from The Pensinsula counties of Elizabeth City, Warwick, James City, York, and Charles City. This also had a salutary effect on expansion southward by residents of Isle of Wight and Nansemond Cos., "reinforced" by folks from Norfolk and Princess Anne Cos. Now the "obstacle" to southern migration became the boundary with Carolina which, at this point, was as vague on paper as it always has been on the ground. While a few Virginians continued to migrate to Carolina, most were then content to stay in Virginia -- IF they could determine where Virginia ended and Carolina began and be reassured that it was likely to remain that way. Spotswood also was keen on exploiting Virginia's natural resources, particularly mineral deposits, and invited a large contingent of miners and those familiar with ore-processing from Germany and Switzerland. They were settled just above the confluence of the Rappahannock and Rapidan Rivers, in an area which became known as the "Germanna Settlement" (or Tract).
Spotswood perhaps is best known for having personally led a group of "Gentlemen" in an exploratory trip to the crest of the Blue Ridge Mountains in 1716. While they were far from the first white men to lay eyes on the Shenandoah Valley and the Allegheny Mountains beyond, they _were_ the first white men to do so _and_ be in a position to do something besides enjoy the spectacular vistas. Spotswood clearly recognized the value of the Blue Ridge as a natural defensive barrier and promptly set in motion a series of policies designed to encourage and expedite westward settlement. As mentioned earlier, at the end of Spotswood's tenure, several new counties were created:
KING GEORGE was formed in 1721 from RICHMOND and WESTMORELAND, and drew principally from settlers already present in the Northern Neck, but also from across the Potomac River in Maryland. HANOVER was formed in 1721 from NEW KENT and drew heavily from both The Peninsula and the Middle Neck. SPOTSYLVANIA was formed in 1721 principally from ESSEX and also drew heavily from the Northern Neck, as well as from elsewhere in the Middle Neck.
* * * * * 1722-1740
Spotswood was followed by a Governor named Hugh Drysdale whose brief, four-year tenure was rather unremarkable --although he did manage to get an Anglican Parish named for himself. Not so with Drysdale's successor, William Gooch,whose enlightened views and especially long tenure --almost a quarter-century -- prompted perhaps the greatest period of expansion and migration in Virginia's history. So much happened in this period that we should look at events by section of the colony: [CENTRAL] Early in the Gooch administration, the same movement up the Pamunkey River and the lower side of the Rappahannock River -- which had prompted creation of Spotsylvania Co. in 1721 necessitated the creation of:
CAROLINE -- formed in 1727 from the uppermost portions of KING & QUEEN, KING WILLIAM, and a small portion of ESSEX, and drew heavily from these three counties. The westward movement also began to pick up greater steam-- sparked by Spotswood's journey to the crest of the Blue Ridge, the successful "Germanna Settlement," and the Huguenot Settlement above the Falls of the James. The following year (1728), saw the creation of:
GOOCHLAND -- formed from western HENRICO and lying on both sides of the James River and extending to the Blue Ridge. In the 1720s the area which was to comprise Goochland Co.had become a real "melting pot." Obviously, the bulk of the settlers had been there for some time, while it was still Henrico; but it also drew heavily from Hanover, Caroline, and the upper Middle Neck, as well as The Peninsula counties. Goochland's attractiveness was the fact that it was on both sides of the river. Bear in mind that rivers continued to be seen as economic life-lines. Tobacco remained virtually the sole cash crop, but it still had to be grown in large quantities to be profitable. It was measured by weight, but ease of transportation required that it take up as little volume as possible. It had long been packed and pressed into casks called "hogsheads," each weighing 500-600 lbs. An iron bar was then inserted from one end to the other to serve as an axle. The hogshead was hitched to a team of draft animals -- usually oxen -- and literally rolled to the nearest waterway; hence the term "rolling road." Even above its falls, the James River had sufficient depth for fair-size boats, on which hogsheads could be transhipped.
By 1734, enough folks had spread westward along the Upper Rappahannock/Rapidan Rivers to warrant creation of: ORANGE -- formed from SPOTSYLVANIA.
Orange Co. also was to become a "melting pot," but for somewhat different reasons. At its formation, Orange was the first Virginia county to have definite borders which extended_beyond_ the Blue Ridge Mountains: essentially all of the Shenandoah Valley, what is now West Virginia, and beyond. Orange drew settlers largely from its eastern neighbors, Spotsylvania and Caroline; but it also drew them from the adjacent Lord Fairfax Grant to its north -- settlers who saw an opportunity to actually own their land rather than lease it from the Fairfax family. Orange also was to be the beneficiary of the first significant influx of settlers from Virginia's northern neighbors, Maryland and Pennsylvania:
-- As early as 1727 one Adam Miller/Mueller, of German descent, moved his family from Pennsylvania through western Maryland and settled in the lower end of the Shenandoah Valley, not far from present-day Winchester, VA. He was soon followed by a fairly sizeable contingent of his ilk, led by such men as Joist Hite and Jacob Stover. By the time of the formation of Orange Co., they were well-established in the northern end of the county, near the Potomac River. They were only the vanguard of many more to come, and for a good many years thereafter, ethnic Germans (including Swiss) were a major force in the lower Valley.
-- In the mid-1730s, also, a few Ulster Scots (or so-called Scots-Irish) from Pennsylvania investigated the Valley. They reported favorably to their confreres in Pennsylvania. There was a catch, though: they were Presbyterian -- or, in the term of the day, "dissidents" from the Anglican Church. So, one might ask, what about the ethnic Germans, who were Lutherans? Then as now, the Anglican and Lutheran Churches were rather closely aligned, ecclesiastically. Besides, they were Germans and, thus, different. The Ulster Scots, however, were already British subjects who had voluntarily forsaken the Anglican Church. As odd as it might seem, that was viewed as a more serious form of "dissidence." True enough, the Act of Toleration -- freeing British subjects to worship as they chose -- was in place; but that law had been directed at Catholics. It was not at all clear to what extent it applied to "newer" religions; moreover, it was not clear how or to what extent the Act would be applied in Virginia. The Ulster Scots in Pennsylvania took the precaution of dispatching a delegation to visit Gov. Gooch in 1738 to inquire about the prospects of settling in Virginia.
-- The timing could not have been better, for all concerned. Gov. Gooch was a native Scot; hence, he was perhaps more favorably disposed toward these folk than would have been the case with previous governors. For Gooch's part, the desire of these Ulster Scots to settle in the Valley was the answer to his prayers. He had been at some pains to find a way to defend an ever-lengthening frontier. Here was a group whose fighting qualities were almost legendary and who actually _wanted_, in effect, to become a buffer between the Indians and the predominantly English settlers east of the Blue Ridge. Gooch quickly assured them that they and their form of Protestantism were most welcome, before they might change their minds. Within a year, hundreds of Ulster Scots were streaming into the Valley; soon it would be thousands.
[SOUTHERN]
Likewise early in his tenure, Gov. Gooch recognized that further expansion to the south and southwest could not be realized until the issue of the border with Carolina was settled. He therefore arranged -- with the concurrence of the Carolina Governor -- a Joint Commission and surveying party to accurately fix the boundary in 1728. To lead the Virginia delegation, he selected William Byrd II. This was a most propitious choice, for several reasons: -- Byrd had great interest in exploration and expansion -- particularly westward and southward -- following in the footsteps of his father, the first William Byrd, who made his fortune in backing trade with the Indians in that area and hunting/trapping expeditions. Byrd also was not only well-known throughout the colony, but also in England, and his views garnered attention on both sides of the Atlantic. Moreover, Byrd was loquacious and a tireless exponent of immigration -- particularly if he could find some profit in it. Finally, Byrd was fond of publishing his views, which gave them even wider circulation. [N.B. His "History of the Dividing Line" is generally available and, in my view, is among about a half-dozen books which are "must reads" for any serious Virginia researcher.]
-- The men Byrd selected for the Virginia delegation were known to him and, like Byrd,were largely resident within a 10 to 15-mile radius of the juncture of the James and Appomattox Rivers. When they and Byrd saw first-hand what "Southside" Virginia and the NC border area had to offer, they not only extolled its promise to all and sundry, but also -- to the extent they were able -- began to seek patents on some of the lands they had explored. Most of the delegation were woodsmen -- ordinary colonists of the "vulgar" or "meaner sort," as Spotswood would have termed them. Their views probably carried as much or more weight with their fellow colonists than did Byrd's. Immediately (1728), a new county was created: BRUNSWICK -- formed from the extreme southern portions of ISLE OF WIGHT and SURRY, and from PRINCE GEORGE -- all of Prince George lying south and west of the Nottoway River, extended to the Appomattox River, and then to the Upper James River. Atleast the county was formed on paper; it would be another four years (1732) before it began to function as a county.
Expansion into the area was not as rapid as Gooch had hoped -- witness not enough settlers in the first four years to form a functioning county; but that was soon to change. Large grants in Brunswick Co. were made to many of the more well-heeled, who then offered a variety of inducements to colonists who would lease or buy sub-divided tracts. Settlement increased in the 1730s but still not at the rate desired. Although a few folks came to Brunswick in these early days from above the James River, almost all of those taking up lands in Brunswick in its first decade (1728-1738) were already resident on the south side of the Lower James River, i.e., Lower Tidewater. Because of proximity, they were more readily able to travel to the new area and see it for themselves before making a decision to relocate. Finally, in the late 1730s, Governor Gooch and the Council offered grants of 50 acres for each male tithable and a 10-year moratorium on taxes. That did it. What had begun as a trickle was about to turn into a torrent of new settlers.
[NORTHERN]
As mentioned earlier, the grant by King Charles II to Lord Fairfax of all lands between the Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers had tended to restrain rather than boost settlement from its inception. There was a geographical drawback, as well: the area was less well-suited to growing tobacco than other parts of Virginia. Both factors were about to change, though. On the Lord Fairfax side: While it's much too complicated to recite here, suffice it to say that the descendants of the original Lord Fairfax began to loosen the family stranglehold on the region in the 1730s-40s. On the other side of the issue, colonists discovered that it was becoming possible to grow things besides tobacco and still make a living.
When Stafford Co. had been formed in 1664, it was the most westward county in the Fairfax Grant. Although Richmond (1692) and King George (1721) had been created in the interim, neither had been prompted by western movement of any consequence. It was not until 1731 -- after a hiatus of 67 years -- that the surveyed boundary in the Fairfax Grant again moved westward, with the creation of:
PRINCE WILLIAM -- formed from the western portions of STAFFORD and KING GEORGE. Prince William drew its inhabitants principally from the lower portions of the Fairfax Grant, but an increasing number of settlers were being drawn from areas across the Potomac River in Maryland.
["OTHER"] One more new county had been created in this period, but whether it should be included in Central or Southern Virginia, even today, almost certainly will prompt a debate -- and for good reason, as we'll see. Hence, I dodged the bullet by not placing it in either. This new county was:
AMELIA -- formed in 1735 from western PRINCE GEORGE and a small portion of northwestern BRUNSWICK. Amelia Co. was in the same "league" with its northern neighbor, Goochland, in terms of being a melting pot -- and for some of the same reasons. The beginnings of Amelia were the result of the natural westward expansion of Prince George beyond the falls of the Appomattox River along its south bank. With the Nottoway River as its southern boundary, Amelia was blessed with two major waterways, in addition to a number of sizeable streams in between. This greatly simplified transportation. Moreover, like Goochland, the topography was ideal for agriculture: generally flat to slightly rolling, but high enough to be largely devoid of swampy areas.
The Amelia melting pot, though, was also a factor of its centralized location: It naturally attracted folks from The Peninsula, lower Henrico, and Surry who wanted to move westward toward the mountains; but it also attracted folks from upper Henrico, Hanover, Goochland, Caroline, and the Middle Neck who saw their future in moving directly southward, and Amelia was far enough inland to reduce the number of major river crossings. In short, Amelia became the crossroads of western and southern migration for most of central/upper Tidewater Virginia.
* * * * * 1740-1754
This 14-15 year period was perhaps the most explosive in terms of expansion of any comparable period in Virginia history. In all, 15 new counties were formed -- or half again as many as had been created in the preceding 135 years! Once again, it warrants discussion by region.
NORTHERN] I realize this sounds like a broken record, but Northern Virginia simply lagged behind in terms of growth -- events elsewhere in Virginia were simply too dynamic. I've no empirical data to offer, but I'd wager that the counties in the old Fairfax Grant might actually have lost population in this period. Of the 15 new counties formed, only one was in the old Fairfax Grant:
FAIRFAX -- formed in 1742 from northern PRINCE WILLIAM. To the extent that new settlers came into the area, many continued to be from across the Potomac River in Maryland and some from Pennsylvania. Please understand that I am not suggesting that nobody moved westward in this area during this period; I'm only suggesting that any movement/growth was miniscule compared to what was happening elsewhere in Virginia.
[CENTRAL] As mentioned in the preceding period, growth and expansion westward in 1728 had prompted the formation of Goochland Co. along both banks of the James River and had drawn a goodly number of folks from Hanover Co. and both The Peninsula and the Middle Neck. Later, others from Hanover and adjacent Caroline and from lower Spotsylvania pushed more directly westward within the bounds of Hanover -- to the extent that it prompted creation of: LOUISA -- formed in 1742 from HANOVER, with Goochland on the south and Orange on the north. Like these two adjacent counties, Louisa then stretched all the way to the Blue Ridge Mountains. [N.B. Louisa's conduit to the Blue Ridge was a narrow corridor known as Frederickville Parish, giving Louisa a shape resembling a saucepan. Louisa maintained this corridor only until 1761.]
The principal migration in this part of Virginia continued to be along both banks of the James River, and it was so rapid that it soon prompted the creation of another new county:
ALBEMARLE -- formed in 1744 from all of western GOOCHLAND on the north bank of the James River and extreme western GOOCHLAND on the south bank. As one might expect, the bulk of settlers in Albemarle had leap-frogged their way along the James River from counties bordering the river farther east. There were notable exceptions, however. Albemarle sat astride the major north-south hunting/trading trail which had been used for centuries by the Indians. While there may have been little love lost between the colonists and the Indians, the colonists did recognize that the Indians knew what they were doing when it came to getting from one place to another. Moreover, the colonists believed -- with some reason -- that the Indians generally traveled from one _good_ place to another. Consequently, many of the settlers in the northern part of Virginia who had reached the northern section of this trail thought it wise to "make a left" and follow it. Hence, a goodly number came to Albemarle from Orange and from the western end of the Fairfax Grant. Albemarle also received a sizeable segment of Ulster Scots -- "overflow" from the Shenandoah Valley, or those who simply elected to settle principally along the eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge. Traders and merchants from eastern Virginia and elsewhere saw Albemarle as a potential bonanza. The settlers who were rapidly filling the Valley had to acquire goods and market their crops; either way, such materials had to transit the Blue Ridge via the various gaps -- most of which were now in Albemarle.
Speaking of the Shenandoah Valley, it became the scene of a virtual "land rush" in the early 1740s. While the majority of settlers were Ulster Scots, a sizeable flow of ethnic Germans also contined to arrive -- in both cases, mostly from Pennsylvania, but also from just below the Susquehanna River in northern Maryland. As had been the case initially, the Ulster Scots tended to settle farther "up" the Valley (southward), while the ethnic Germans were more prevalent in the "lower" (northern) section. An increasing number of Ulster Scots began to arrive directly from Europe as the result of "marketing" the area by the holders of three major grants: William Beverly, James Patton, and Benjamin Borden. After the "Bonnie Prince Charlie" episode in 1745, the Ulster Scots were "reinforced" by an influx of mainland Scots who tended to by-pass Pennsylvania in favor of coming directly to the Valley.
All this settlement activity soon prompted the need to create two new counties -- the first Virginia counties wholly beyond the Blue Ridge Mountains: FREDERICK -- formed in 1743 from northwestern ORANGE.
AUGUSTA -- formed in 1745 from the remainder of ORANGE lying west of the mountains. It's perhaps well to point out that, at this time -- and for over a quarter-century thereafter --these two counties encomapassed virtually all lands claimed by Virginia west of the Blue Ridge: i.e., essentially all of what is now West Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, and the western tip of Pennsylvania. It's equally important to point out, though, that only itinerant hunters/trappers ventured much beyond the Allegheny Mountains on the western side of the Valley. I say "virtually all" inasmuch as expansion due west from Frederick was such that it warranted creation of:
HAMPSHIRE -- formed in 1754 from FREDERICK. This was something of an "enclave," though, and it's boundaries at formation did not change for 32 years. [N.B. More first-rate reference books have been produced on the settlement of the Shenandoah Valley than on any other area of Virginia. Respected authors/researchers such as Chalkley, Kercheval, and Summers are "must-reads" if you know or even suspect an ancestor may have transited the Valley. To save space, I'll only "hit the high spots" from here on.]
It's important to note that the Valley was NOT the exclusive preserve of the Ulster/mainland Scots and ethnic Germans. Some of the more intrepid English colonists from east of the Blue Ridge also were enticed by these new and incredibly fertile lands in the Valley. Many who were perhaps less intrepid were nevertheless drawn westward, but were content to remain on the east side of the mountains; in so doing, they prompted the creation of:
CULPEPER -- formed in 1749 from northern ORANGE. Although not exclusively, of course, Culpeper drew heavily from the western and southern portions of the old Fairfax Grant and from western Spotsylvania. A little farther to the south, westward growth also had prompted new county creation:
CUMBERLAND -- formed in 1749 from what remained of old GOOCHLAND on the south side of the James River. This is an example of what might be termed a sub-division for political purposes. The western "frontier" had moved beyond this area over a decade earlier; recall also that Albemarle had been created five years earlier from adjacent lands to the west. Originally, "old Goochland" had extended southward along the west bank of the Appomattox River. A combination of distance to be traveled to the Goochland Court House and settlers crossing over the Appomattox from Amelia necessitated the creation of a separate county.
Speaking of Amelia, its growth since 1735 had been phenomenal {see earlier for factors). The confluence of the Appomattox and Nottoway Rivers acted much like a funnel into southwestern Amelia. That, coupled with some "spillover" from lower Cumberland, soon necessitated the creation of:
PRINCE EDWARD -- formed in 1754 from AMELIA. The growth in that area also had been aided by a sizeable contingent of Ulster Scots from Pennsylvania who -- eschewing the Valley -- instead founded a settlement in the Buffalo River/Briery Creek area. A surprising number of French Huguenots -- both from the original settlement on the James River and from the lower York River -- seemed to find their way to what became Prince Edward. [N.B. I realize that, technically, Prince Edward more properly belongs in the Southern portion of our discussion, but for the moment it seemed a better "fit" to insert it here.] Two more examples of sub-division for political purposes occurred in this general area during this period. The first was the creation of:
CHESTERFIELD -- formed, also in 1749, from southern and western HENRICO. Here, too, like Cumberland, the westward push had long since passed by, but -- less the formation of Goochland -- the boundaries of Henrico had remained essentially unchanged for well over a century! In the case of Chesterfield, this "internal" growth had been fueled by the establishment of the market centers of Richmond and Petersburg.
The second was the creation of: DINWIDDIE -- formed in 1752 from what remained of southwestern PRINCE GEORGE. [SOUTHERN] As noted in the preceding period (1722-1740), the establishment of the VA-NC boundary and inducements proffered by the colonial government had sparked a land rush in "Southside" Virginia. The boundary matter had an even greater effect on the counties of Lower Tidewater. Settlers pushed southward in sufficient numbers to warrant the creation of:
SOUTHAMPTON -- formed in 1749 from the southernmost portions of NANSEMOND and ISLE OF WIGHT. Many of these folks stayed only a short time before gravitating across the boundary to take up lands along the Roanoke River in the border counties of North Carolina: Edgecombe, Northampton, and Granville. The same impetus which had been at work to create Southampton was responsible for the creation of:
SUSSEX -- formed in 1754 from that portion of SURRY lying below the Blackwater River. It's probably worth noting that, in terms of population density, the creation of Sussex likely was long overdue. Recall that settlers began moving south of the Blackwater River in significant numbers soon after the "ban" was lifted ca. 1710. Although interest in southwestern expansion and the consequent creation of adjacent Brunswick had drawn many settlers away from lower Surry in the 1730s, sufficient numbers remained for Sussex to have been formed perhaps a decade earlier. That it did not happen until 1754, I sense, was a matter of politics, pure and simple.
Turning a bit to the west: When William Byrd II chronicled the 1728 survey of the VA-NC border, he noted that no settler resided "higher up" (further westward) than the fork of the Roanoke (Staunton) and Dan Rivers -- today, the tri-border juncture of Charlotte, Mecklenburg, and Halifax Cos. As discussed earlier, the 1728/32 formation of Brunswick and other events were about to change that in a phenomenal way. The land grants and tax incentives offered by the colonial government produced a flood of migration from the entire length of Tidewater Virginia and, to some extent, throughout Virginia. As also mentioned earlier, first on the scene were those from the nearby areas of Prince George, lower Henrico, Amelia, and to a lesser extent, Surry. After 1740, however, they were joined by those from counties even farther away. Some historians/ sociologists -- seeking, I suppose, a handy overarching phrase -- termed this later southward movement the "Hanover Migration." While it's true that a great many settlers indeed came from Hanover, almost as many came from adjacent Goochland, Caroline, the counties of the Middle Neck, and elsewhere. Soon, their numbers were such that the creation of a new county was deemed warranted: LUNENBURG -- formed in 1745/6 from BRUNSWICK. At a stroke, Brunswick went from being the largest Virginia county east of the Blue Ridge to its present-day configuration, and Lunenburg became the largest. It was bounded on the north by the Nottoway River, on the south by North Carolina, and extended westward to the mountains and northwestward to within about five miles of the upper James River at the mountains. The influx of settlers not only did not slow down at this point in time, but if anything actually increased. Only seven years passed before the creation of yet another county waswarranted:
HALIFAX -- formed in 1752 from that portion of LUNENBURG south and west of the Roanoke (Staunton) River, extended to the mountains along the Blackwater River. [N.B. A different Blackwater River than the one cited earlier.]
* * * * * Although it does not relate to a particular county, the chronology and what is to come in the next item seems to make this a good time to mention an event which was to have a profound and long-term effect on Virginia settlement patterns. In 1750, a multi-faceted gentleman named Dr. Thomas Walker and several acquaintances set off from his home in northeastern Albemarle to explore the "southwest." They traveled along the upper James River, crossing it near what is now Lynchburg, and continued southward. They crossed the Blue Ridge near the Roanoke (Staunton) River gap and again turned southward. Whether it was their principal objective, or merely a fortunate side-benefit, I can't say, but in the process they're said to have discovered a gap through the Allegheny Mountains and to have become the first Englishmen to view what lay beyond. Dr. Walker named the place Cumberland Gap.
* * * * Another area of Lunenburg was quickly filling with settlers, also -- but in a slightly different way. The major _water_ gaps which cut through the Blue Ridge Mountains were those formed by the upper James and upper Roanoke (Staunton) Rivers. These constituted the trading life-lines to the upper Shenandoah Valley. "Political influence" had insured that both sides of the upper James River at/near the mountains had been retained -- first in Goochland and then in Albemarle when Brunswick and, later, Lunenburg were formed. The James River gap became a mecca for traders and other entrepreneurs, whose ties extended back along the James to the ports and commercial establishments bear what is now Richmond. Settlement, too, on the east side of the mountains naturally had tended to follow the James. Those not desiring to cross the mountains tended to continue southward into what was, by 1745/6, the extreme northwestern corner of Lunenburg, where they merged with those moving westward up the Roanoke (Staunton) River valley. The population steadily increased up to 1750 and then boomed with the discovery of Cumberland Gap to the southwest (see above). Their numbers -- coupled with the great distance to either the Albemarle or Lunenburg court houses -- were such that a new county was warranted:
BEDFORD -- formed in 1754 from western LUNENBURG above the Blackwater River.That "sliver" of land (about five miles wide) along the south bank of the upper James River which, even then, had been retained in Albermarle -- now in the vicinity of Lynchburg -- was incorporated into Bedford the following year (1755).
* * * * * 1755-1775
This (hooray!) brings us to the last segment of this effort. It's anchored on either end by two armed conflicts: The French and Indian War and the Revolutionary War. For frontier Virginians, an argument could be made that it was a solid two decades of unbroken armed conflict, with some years just slightly more peaceful than others -- but that's another story.
The former had a tremendous influence on the remaining settlement of Virginia -- as we now know it -- and migration patterns, generally, in the two decades preceding the Revolution. [N.B. I'll presume you have a fundamental understanding of the origins, the course, and the outcome of the French and Indian War. If not, any encyclopedia article on the war will quickly enlighten.] The occasional Indian foray had been a constant annoyance for those who had elected to settle beyond the Blue Ridge Mountains, but it was viewed by most as an "occupational hazard" or "cost of doing business." This changed for the worse when the majority of the Indian tribes were co-opted by the French to help forestall further English expansion, or perhaps even eject the English from North America. The threat soon became clear to the Virginia colonial government, which sought additional military support from England. It arrived in the person of Gen. Edward Braddock who brought with him two regiments. As a 22 year-old surveyor and sometime Virginia militia lieutenant-colonel, named George Washington, knew the northwestern VA frontier and had already skirmished with the French, Braddock made Washington his Aide. With some militia elements and his two regiments, Braddock headed off toward present-day Pittsburgh to take on the French. It was a disaster: Braddock was killed and Washington barely escaped with his life.
For our purposes, two things of consequence evolved from Braddock's defeat:
(1) The news of the defeat induced a near panic among a significant number of the settlers in the Shenandoah Valley, who clearly understood that they _were_ the front line of defense and mightily exposed. The most westward Valley settlements were largely abandoned in favor of consolidation in mid-Valley or back to the foot of the Blue Ridge. Some even removed back across the Blue Ridge, whence they'd come. Still others perceived this to be an excellent time to remove to Carolina, where the Cherokee Indians were said to be less hostile, if not actually neutral.
(2) With county militias less than keen on the idea of defending other than their own hearths and homes, Washington sought and received authorization to do two things: build a chain of forts along the Virginia frontier, to be staffed by the local militias; and form a regiment of men to be recruited as individuals from throughout the colony . . . and paid by the colony. This became known as The Virginia Regiment. Many of those who signed up were from eastern Virginia and had never seen the "frontier." In later years, their recollections and the offer of bounty lands to the west would prompt their removal. [N.B. The rosters of the Virginia Regiment have largely survived; they are a "must check" item if you have any reason to think an ancestor was in Virginia in or before 1756.]
As it developed, the bulk of the French and Indian War was prosecuted well to the north, although a goodly number of Virginians died at the hands of the Indians in numerous raids along the frontier. Only a handful of incidents occurred east of the Blue Ridge. Hence, before long it was back to business as usual in most areas of the colony. [NORTHERN] Here, it was even better than usual. The most western portions of the old Fairfax Grant wereformed into counties:
LOUDOUN -- formed in 1757 from FAIRFAX.
FAUQUIER -- formed in 1759 from PRINCE WILLIAM. As had been the case for a half-century, these lands were largely taken up by descendants of families from the Northern Neck, or from along the south bank of the Potomac and its tributaries,and from across the Potomac in Maryland. The area also was getting a greater share of new immigrants, following the establishment of port facilities on the Potomac at Alexandria and Georgetown.
[CENTRAL] The same southwestward impetus -- the lead elements of which, in part, had prompted the creation of Bedford -- soon warranted the creation of new counties:
AMHERST -- formed in 1761 from ALBEMARLE.
BUCKINGHAM -- formed in 1761 from ALBEMARLE. These two counties were, to some extent, mirror images: Amherst was formed from that part of Albemarle nearest Bedford and on the west side of the James River; while Buckingham was formed from all of Albemarle lying on the east side of the James River. While still a part of Albemarle, the areas comprising both counties had been well populated and -- like what remained of Albemarle after the sub-division -- had drawn heavily from Orange, Louisa and Goochland on the north side of the James and from Cumberland on the south side. As "consolation" for having given up so much territory, Albemarle concurrently received that portion of Louisa extending to the Blue Ridge (Frederickville Parish].
[SOUTHERN] The flow of settlers to "Southside" from all parts of eastern and northern Virginia had continued unabated since ca. 1740, and showed no signs of slowing. It would seem that most perceived "Southside" as offering not only excellent agricultural areas, but also the widest options for future relocation, as opportunities might present themselves: i.e., south and southwest to Carolina, or west to who knew what/where via Cumberland Gap.
In terms of county formation, however, the colonial government seems to have adopted a wait-and-see approach, pending the outcome of the French and Indian War. When the war officially ended in 1763, part of the settlement was an agreement by the Crown to prohibit settlement beyond a line generally following the crest of the Allegheny Mountains. This became known as the "Proclamation Line," and many Virginians felt that the Crown had "wimped out" and sold out their chances for settling the promising lands to the west. Nevertheless, the law was the law -- at least for the time being. With southwestern expansion beyond the Alleghenies temporarily "off the table," the colonial government quickly began to respond to the "Southside" settlers' requests for additional counties.
MECKLENBURG was formed in 1765 from that part of LUNENBURG lying between the Meherrin River and North Carolina.
CHARLOTTE also was formed in 1765 and also from LUNENBURG -- that portion above the Roanoke (Staunton) River and westward to BEDFORD.
As in several other cases previously cited, these formations were not a direct consequence of westward expansion; the frontier had passed by these areas a decade earlier. Instead, they were prompted by more pragmatic considerations, such as population density and distances settlers had to travel to the Lunenburg Court House. The formation of the other county created in "Southside" during this period, however, was a consequence of continued westward movement:
PITTSYLVANIA -- formed in 1767 from the western portion of HALIFAX. Recall that, when it was formed in 1752, Halifax extended between the Roanoke (Staunton)/Blackwater Rivers and North Carolina all the way to the Blue Ridge. Even then its western areas were already lightly settled, and more settlers were moving in -- principally from elsewhere in "Southside," but also from as far away as Prince Edward, Amelia, and Albemarle. Then, the French and Indian War (1754-63) had made settlers wary of moving beyond the Blue Ridge, thereby creating something of a "backup" in western Halifax. Consequently, by 1767 the population density was such that it called for a new county. As mentioned earlier, the War already had prompted some migration to Carolina; it's perhaps well to note, here, that the imposition of the "Proclamation Line" prompted even greater numbers of settlers to opt for Carolina -- many of whom departed from Halifax and Pittsylvania about this time.
With the area between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghenies generally secure following the French and Indian War, settlers once again began moving in -- principally southward from Augusta, but also from Bedford and Pittsylvania. The topography of the area made it somewhat isolated, and the settlers prevailed upon the colonial government to create counties to administer the area more quickly than had been done east of the Blue Ridge. Thus:
BOTETOURT was formed in 1770 from the southernmost portion of AUGUSTA.
FINCASTLE was formed in 1772, encompassing virtually all of present SW Virginia.
Fincastle was the last county formed in the _colony_ of Virginia. By coincidence, while there have been many counties subdivided since -- and others formed, but lost to other states -- it filled out the boundaries of Virginia as they exist today.
* * * * * As stated at the outset, this is a picture of Colonial Virginia formation/migration painted with a _very_ broad brush. Nevertheless, if you've located an ancestor in one area of Colonial Virginia, perhaps it will provide a clue about where he/she might have resided earlier. Bear in mind that explorers and adventurers were a tiny minority and truly exceptional; most settlers were more "herd-oriented" and content to "go with the flow."
Luck to you.