Primitive personal names doubtless originated soon after the invention of spoken language, in the dark ages long preceding recorded history. For thousands of years thereafter first or given names were the only designations that men and women borer and at the dawn of historic times., when the world was less crowded than it is today and every man knew his neighbor, one title of address was Sufficient. Only gradually, with the passing centuries aid the Increasing complexity of civilized society, did a need arise for more specific designations. While the roots of our system of family names may be traced back to early civilized times, actually the hereditary surname as we know it today dates from scarcely more than nine hundred years ago,

A surname is a name added to a baptismal or given name for the purposes of making it more specific and of indicating family relationship or descent. Classified according to origin, most surnames fall into, four general groups: (1) Those from the given name of the sire; (2) those arising from bodily or personal characteristics, (3) those derived from locality or place of residence; and (4) those derived from occupation. It is easier to understand the story of the development of our institution of surnames if these classifications are borne in mind.

As early as Biblical times certain distinguishing baptismal were occasionally employed in addition to the given name, as, for instance, Joshua the son of Nunj, Azartah the -son of Nathan,, Judas of Galilee, and Simon the Zealot. In ancient Greece a daughter was named after her father., as Chryseis, daughter of Chryses; and a a son's name was often an enlarged form of his ,fathers, as Hieronymus, son of Hiero. The Romans, with the rise of their civilization, met the need for hereditary designations by inventing a complex system whereby every patrician took several names. None of them, however, exactly corresponded to surnames as we know them, for the "clan name'., although hereditary, was given also to slaves and other dependents. This system proved to be but a temporary innovation; the overthrow of the Western Empire by barbarian invaders brought about its end and a reversion to the primitive custom of a single name.

The ancient Scandinavians and for the most part the Germans had only individual names, and there were no family names, strictly speaking, among the Celts. But as family and tribal groups grew in size, individual names became inadequate and the need for supplementary designations began to be felt. Among the first employed were such terms the Hardy, the Stern, the Dreadful-inBattle- and the nations of northern Europe soon adopted the practice of adding the fathers name to the sons., as Oscar son of Carnuth and Dermid Son of Duthno.

True surnames, in the sense of hereditary appellations., date in England from about the year 1000. Largely they were introduced from Normandy, although there are records of Saxon surnames prior to the Norman Conquest. During the reign of Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) there were Saxon tenants in Suffolk bearing such named as Suert Magno, Stigand Soror, Stuward Rufus, and Leuric Hobbesune (Hobson); and the Domesday record of 1085-1086, which exhibits some curious combinations of Saxon forenames with
Norman family names, shows surnames in still more general use, By the end of the twelfth century hereditary names had become common in England. But even by 1465 they were not universal. During the reign of Edward V a law was passed to compel certain Irish outlaws to adopt surnames: "They shall take unto them a Surname, either of some Town, or some Color, as Blacke or Brown, or some Art or Science, as Smyth or Carpenter., or some Office, as Cooke or Butler", and as late as the beginning of the nineteenth century a similar decree compelled Jews in Germany and Austria to add a German surname to the single names that they had previously used.

As stated above, family names, fall into four general classes according to their origin. One of these classes comprises surnames derived from the given name of. the father. Such names were, formed by adding a prefix or suffix denoting either "son of" or a diminutive. English names terminating in son (or the contraction s), ing, and kin are of this type., as are also the innumerable names prefixed with the Gaelic Mac, the Norman Fitz the Irish 0. and the Welsh ap, Thus the sons of John become Johnsons; the sons of William,Willaamsons or Wilsons; the sons of Richard, Rtchardsons or Richardses; the sons of Neill, MacNeills; the sons of Herbert, FitzHerberts; the sons O'Reilly, O'Reillys; and the sons of Thomas, Thomases (ap has been dropped from many names of which it was formerly a part). There are also German, Netherlandish., Scandinavian., and other European surnames of similar formation such as the Scandinavian names ending in sen.

Another class of surnames, those arising from some bodily or personal characteristic of their first bearer, apparently grew out of what were in the first instance nicknames, thus Peter the strong became strong, Roger of small stature became Roger Little or Roger Small, and black haired William or blond Alfred became William Black or Alfred White. A few examples of names of this type are Long, Short., Hardy, Wise., Good,, Gladman., Louer and Youngman.

A third class of family names, and perhaps the largest of all, is that comprising local - surnames - names derived from and originally designating the place of residence of the bearer. Such names were employed in France at an early date and were introduced into England by the Norman's, many of whom were known by the titles of their estates. The surnames adopted by the nobility were chiefly of this, type, being used with the particles de., de, la, or del (meaning "of" or "of the" ), The Saxon equivalent was the word atte ( "at-the"), found in such names as John atte Brook, Edmund atte Lane, Godwin atte Brigg, and William atte Bourne. A vestage of this usage survives in the names Atwell, Atwood, and Atwater; in other cases the Norman de was substituted; and in still others, such as Wood, Briggs, and Lane, the particle was dropped. The surnames of some of the Pilgrim Fathers illustrate place designations. Winthrop, r instance, means "of the.friendly
village"; Endicott "an end cottage and Bradford, a Broadford" The suffixes "ford", "ham", "ley", and "tan", denoting locality, are of frequent occurence in such English names as Ashford, Bingham, Burley, and Norton. Commencing about the time of Edward the Confessor a fourth class of surnames arose names derived, from occupation. The earliest of these seem to have been official names such as Bishop, Mayor, Alderman, Reeve, Sheriff., Chamberlain Chancellor Chaplain, Deacon, Latimer (interpreter), Marshall, Sumner (Summoner), and Parker (park keeper:). Trade and craft names, although of the same general type, were a slightly later development, Surrier was a dresser of skins., Webter a weaver., Painwright a wagon builder., and Baxter a baker. Such names as Smith, Taylor, Barber, Shepherd, Carter, Mason and Miller are self explanatory.

Some surnames of today which seem to defy classification or explanation are corruption's of ancient forms that have become disguised almost beyond recognition. For instance, Troublefield was originally Tuberville, Wrinch was Kenshaw, Dtggles was Douglas, Sinnocks and Snooke were Sevenoake, Barrowoltff and Berrycloth were Barraclough, and Strawbridge was Stourbridge. Such corruptions of family names resulting from ignorance of spelling, variations in pronunciation, or merely from the preference of the bearer, tend to battle both the genealogist and the etymologist. Shakespear's name is found in some twenty-seven different formal and the majority of English and Anglo-American surnames have, in their history, appeared in four to a dozen or more variant spellings.

In the United States a greater variety of family names exists than anywhere else in the world. Surnames of every race and nations are represented. While a substantial number are of English., Scotch, Irish, Welsh, and western European origin brought to this country by scions of families that had borne these names for generations prior to emigration, many others have come from central and southern Europe and the Slavic countries, where the use of surnames is generally a more recently established practice. Some families had no fixed surname until after their arrival in America; and in other cases emigrants from continental Europe or their descendants have translated or otherwise modified their names. These factors contribute to the difficulties encountered by students of etymology and family history.

Those Americans who possess old and honored names who trace their surnames back to sturdy immigrant ancestors, or beyond, across the seas and into the mists of antiquity, may be rightfully proud of their heritage. While the name, in its origin., may seem ingenious, humble, surprising., or matter-of-fact its significance today lies not in a literal interpretation of its initial meaning but in the many things that have happened to it since it first came into use. In the beginning it was only a label to distinguish one John from his neighbor John who
lived across the road. But soon it established itself as part of the bearer's individuality; and as it passed to his children., his children's children, and their children., it became the symbol not of one man but of a family and all that that family stood for. Handed down from generation to generation, the surname grew inseparable associated with the achievement, the tradition, and the prestige of the family. Like the coat-of-arms that vivid symbolization of the name which warrior ancestors bore in battle - the name itself has become a badge of family honor, It has become the "good name" to be proud of and to protect as owners most treasured possession.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bardsley. dictctionary of English and Welah Surnames, 1901

Encyclopedia Americana, 1939

Ewen. History of Surnames of the British Isles. 1931

Harrison. Surnames of the United Kingdom. 1922-1918

Lower. Dictionary of Family Names, 1860

Weekley. Surnames, 1927

Woulfe, Irish Names and Surnames, 1923